[TheMrZZ]

Biggest trap of Simpson's paradox is the results can change with every level of granularity.

If you take the example of Treatment A vs Treatment B for tumors, you can get infinite layers of seemingly contradicting statemens: - Overall, Treatment A has better average results - But if you add tumor size, Treatment B is always better - But if you add gender to size, Treatment B is always better - But if you add age category to gender and size, Treatment A is always better - etc...

It totally contradicts our instincts, and shows statistics can be profoundly misleading (intentionally or not).

[TheMrZZ]

To add some proofs to my answer, I actually coded a Z3 program to prove it! The 3-variables version takes too long to resolve, but I got results for the 2-variables version (tumor size + gender):

Results can be found in this GSheet: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1tsBhElTgXjVTeas8quar...

Code is here: https://gist.github.com/TheMrZZ/c33927ca2cc917997a67d7f84b82...

I'm currently running the 3-variables version, hopefully I'll get results this afternoon.

We can clearly see the same problems that arise in the 1-variable Simpson's paradox (widely different population sizes).

[Narhem]

Like Tumors are higher dimensional objects than what human brains are trained to perceive.

[gradschoolfail]

For pedagogues and practitioners alike: there is a subtle connection between Simpson’s paradox and the wild geometry of relative entropy. This might be partly why effect sizes are also contentious.

Besides Ellenberg’s mind-altering discussion of that link[1], see hints on the second page of:

https://www.qeios.com/read/XB1N2A/pdf

[1] "[the point of Simpson’s paradox] isn't really to tell us which viewpoint to take but to insist that we keep both the parts and the whole in mind at once."

Ellenberg, from Shape: The Hidden Geometry of Information, Biology, Strategy, Democracy, and Everything Else (2021)

[oh_my_goodness]

If the previous comment is right, then this one is plainly also true in some sense. I'm disappointed to see downvotes.

[mb7733]

I think the real-world resolution to this problem is straightforward though. You should look at the finest level of granularity available, and pick the best treatment in the relevant subpopulation for the patient.

[jefftk]

Unfortunately our level of certainty generally falls off as we increase the granularity. For example, imagine the patient is a 77yo Polish-American man, and we're lucky enough to have one historical result for 77yo Polish-American men. That man got treatment A and did better than expected. But say if we go out to 70-79y white men we have 1,000 people, of which 500 got treatment A and generally did significantly worse than the 500 who got treatment B. While the more granular category gives us a little information, the sample size is so small that we would be foolish to discard the less granular information.

[throwawaystress]

The smaller the subpopulation, the higher the variance, and the less significant the result.