[lpghatguy]

Years ago, I introduced Flow gradual typing (JS) to a team. It has explicit annotations for type variance which came up when building bindings to JS libraries, especially in the early days.

I had a loose grasp on variance then, didn't teach it well, and the team didn't understand it either. Among other things, it made even very early and unsound TypeScript pretty attractive just because we didn't have to annotate type variance!

I'm happy with Rust's solution here! Lifetimes and Fn types (especially together) seem to be the main place where variance comes up as a concept that you have to explicitly think about.

[ameliaquining]

Note that this works because Rust doesn't have inheritance, so variance only comes up with respect to lifetimes, which don't directly affect behavior/codegen. In an object-oriented language with inheritance, the only type-safe way to do generics is with variance annotations.